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Artom, Benjamin

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Terms.

�In Bible and Talmud:

The general term for "artisan" in the Bible is "?arash" or "?oresh," which, derived from a verb meaning "to cut," is applicable to any worker in a hard substance, such as metal, stone, or wood (compare the use of this term in a general sense in 2 Kings 22:6, 24:14; Jeremiah 24:1, 29:2). At times it is used more definitely of a carpenter (Jeremiah 10:3; Isaiah 41:7), of a metal-worker (Hosea 13:2), or of an armorer (1 Samuel 13:19). Usually, however, the term is qualified by the addition of the material, as "?arash eben," a worker in stone (2 Samuel 5:11); "?arash 'e?," a worker in wood (ib.); "?oresh ne?oshet," a worker in bronze (1 Kings 7:14); and "?arash barzel," a worker in iron (2 Chronicles 24:12). From the same root is derived "?aroshet," skilled work, defined, as above, by the addition of "eben" or "'e?" (Exodus 31:5). In traditional literature the terms for "artisan" and "handicraft" are "umman" and "ummanut" respectively (Song Sol. 7:2, "omman").

Leaving to special articles a detailed description of the various crafts and occupations mentioned in Bible and Talmud, it will be sufficient to give here a general summary of specialized occupations, wherein, for completeness' sake, unskilled laborers are included.

Workers in Metal.

The smelting of gold and silver is undoubtedly one of the oldest crafts known to man. The "?oref" (Judges 17:4; Isa. 19, 41:7, 46:6; Jeremiah 10:9,14, 51:17, and elsewhere) or "me?aref" (Malachi 3:2-3), literally "smelter," is the goldsmith or silversmith. The smelting was done in the "kur" (smelting-pot, Proverbs 17:3, 27:21) or the "ma?ref" (ib.). In traditional literature the "zahabi," Aramaic "dahabi," "dahabana" (goldsmith), is distinguished from the "kassafi" or "kassaf" (silversmith). Copper and bronze were worked by the "?oresh ne?o-shet" (Genesis 4:22; 1 Kings 7:14). In the Mishnah he is called "me?aref ne?oshet" (Ket. 7:10); in the Talmud "?ashshala dude" (kettle-smith, Ket. 77a; see, however, ib., where "me?aref ne?oshet" is differently explained). Iron, like gold, was smelted in the "kur" (Deuteronomy 4:20; 1 Kings 8:51; Jeremiah 11:4). The "?arash barzel" (iron-worker or smith, 2 Chronicles 24:12) is called in traditional literature "nappa?" (one who uses bellows) or "pe?ami" (one who uses charcoal). Mention is also made of the "?arsi" (chaser or embosser; compare L�w, in Krauss, "Lehnw�rter," 2:277a; and Jastrow," Dictionary," s. , ).

The "?arash 'e?" (worker in wood, Exodus 31:5) is called in traditional literature "naggar," and means "carpenter" as well as "joiner." As specialists in this calling are mentioned the "saddaah" or "saddana" (maker of stocks, Pes. 28a) and the "?a??a?" (feller of trees, Cant. R. 2:2; Lev. R. ). Carving is mentioned in 1 Kings 6:29, and elsewhere; "kiyyur" (paneling), in traditional literature (B. B. 53b).

Workers in Wood and Stone.

Workers in stone were the "?o?eb" (quarryman or stone-cutter, 1 Kings 5:29), who hewed the stone from the rock, and the "?oresh eben" (stone-polisher, 2 Samuel 5:11). In traditional literature the first is called "?a??ab," the latter "sattat" (B. M. 118b). Those who chisel millstones are called "ne?orot" (Tosef., ?id. 5:14; ?id. 82a); engravers in stone are "patta?e abanim" or "mefatte?e abanim" (Yer. She?. 4:48a; Kelim 29:5).

The "boneh" (builder) is called in traditional literature "bannai" (Kelim 29:3; Tosef., Kelim, B. B. 7:2; Yer. ?ag. 2:77b; B. M. 118b), who is differentiated from the "ardikal" or "adrikal"= Assyrian "dimgallu" (the architect or eyestone-setter, B. M. c.; Targ. II., Sam. 5:11). The specialized term for wall-builders is "goderim" (2 Kings 12:13) or "?arashe eben ?ir" (2 Samuel 5:11). To this trade belong the "pison" (mortar-maker, Kelim 20:2), the "?a?" (plasterer, Ezekiel 13:11), and the "sayyad" (whitewasher, lime-burner, Shab. 80b).

Workers in Clay, Earth, and Leather.

The "yo?er" (potter) is in traditional literature "pa?ara" (Targ. Isaiah 29:16). As specialists in this trade are mentioned the "kaddad" (jug-maker, M. ?. 13b; Pes. 55b, MS. M., ed. ), the "godel tannurim" (oven-maker), the "godel kele ?urah" (art-potter, M. ?. 11a; Yer. Shab. 7:10d), and the "?addar" (maker of pots, Tohar. 7:1). The "zaggag," Aramaic "zaggaga" (glazier, M. ?. 13b; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 2:40c), is specialized into the "nofea? kele zekokit" (glass-blower, Yer. Shab. c.). Here belongs the "?ofer shi?in" (ditchdigger, B. ?. 50a). The "bursi" (tanner or hide-dresser; see Krauss, "Lehnw�rter," s.) or "'abbedan" (Kelim 26:8) had as assistant the "shalla?a" (flayer, skinner, Shab. 49b), who prepared the hides for tanning. As specialists in this line are found the "shakkaf" or "ushkafa"(shoemaker, Tosef., Kelim, B. B. 1:15; Gi?. 68b), the "ra?'an" (belt-maker, Pes. 4:6), the "sarag" (harness-maker, Kelim 24:8), the "za??a?" (maker of leather bottles, Mi?. 9:5), and the "sandelar" (sandal-maker, Yer. ?ag. 3:78d).

Textile Industry.

In the textile industry a number of crafts are mentioned, such as "?ammar" (the wool-weaver, 'Eduy. 3:4; Kelim 29:6); "pishtani" (the beater of flax, Yer. Yeb. 13:13c; Gen. R. 32:3); "ma'azela" (the spinner, Eccl. R. 7:9); "azloya" (the net-weaver, B. M. 24b); "?iwwaah" (the common weaver, Shab. 113a, 140b); "oreg" (the weaver, Yer. She?. 5:49a); "gardi" (wool-weaver, Kelim 12:4); "?arsi" (the artistic weaver, 'Ab. Zarah 17b; Suk. 51b); "sericarius" (the silk-weaver, Pesi?. R.; Cant. R. 8:11, where the word appears in corrupted form); ?abba', ?abba'ah" (the dyer, B. ?. 9:4; Gi? 52b); "kobes" and "?a??ara" (the fuller, Ber. 28a; Tosef., Kelim, B. M. 3:14; Yer. Ber. 4:7d). Connected with this are the occupations of the "?ayya?" (tailor, Shab. 1:3), the "godel mi?nefet" (turbanor cap-maker, Kelim 16:7); and the "ashpara" (clothes-cleaner, 'Ab. Zarah 20b).

"Ma'aseh ro?em" (the art of embroidery) and "ma'aseh ?osheb" (the art of fine weaving) were known and already highly developed in Biblical times (See See compare Embroidery). Mention is also made of the "sa??ay" (sack-maker, Kelim 13:5), and of the "sarad" or "saddar" (net-maker, Yoma 85a; Mek., Ki Tissa; Yal?., Ex. 327; Tosef., ?id. 5:14).

Workers in Agricultural Products.

AGRICULTURE afforded work not only to the fieldlaborers but to the "?a?ona" (miller, Yer. Peah 1:15c), and the "na?tom" (professional baker, ?al. 2:7). The baker was the "?efela" (???????, restaurant-keeper, Tosef., B. M. 11:30). The "?allay'" parched the grain and offered it for sale, and the "garosah" or "dashoshah" (grist-maker) manufactured different kinds of groats or pearl-barley (Men. 10:4; M. ?. 2:5). Cooking, in Talmudic times, developed into an art, so that one boasted of knowing a hundred ways of preparing eggs (Lam. R. 3:16). The "megabben" (cheese-maker, Tosef., Shab. [] 13); the "?abba?," "?abba?a" (butcher, slaughterer, or "sho?e?," also professional cook, Be?ah 28a; ?ul. 18a; Tosef., Ber. 4:10), and "?a??ab" (meat-seller, 'Eduy. 8:2); the "?ali?ar" (confectioner, Yer. ?al. 2:58c); the "sodani" (brewer, Ber. 44b), and the "bassam" or "pa??am" (manufacturer of spices, druggist, Tosef., ?id. 2:2; Yer. Yoma 4:41d) supplied other necessities of the household. Fish and game were provided by the "?aram" (fisher, Yer. M. ?. 2:81b) and the "rishba" (fowler, ?ul. 116a). The hunting of deer is frequently mentioned in the Talmud and Midrashim (Shab. 13:5; B. M. 85b).

Cattle-raising required the services of a "na?dud" (herder, Lev. R. 1:9), of a "ro'eh" (shepherd), and of a "karzila" (assistant, B. ?. 56b). The "pa??am" fattened animals for the market (Tosef., Be?ah, 3:6). Other occupations dealing with cattle are "ahuryar" (equerry, Meg. 12b; differently explained in Jastrow, "Dictionary," s. ), "baham" or "ba??ar" (cattle-raiser and cattle-driver, Deut. R. 3:6; Yer. Be?ah 5:63b), "gammal" (camel-driver), "?ammar" (ass-driver, ?id. 4:14), and "?arar" (carriage-driver or wagoner, ib. Bab. and Yer.; B. M. 6:1).

Other Occupations.

The demands of personal comfort, which in most instances called for manual labor, though the occupations themselves were scarcely those of Artisans, were filled by the "ballan" (????????, bather, Sheb. 8:5), with his attendants, the "turmesar" (??????); the "oleyar," "olearius" (clothes-keeper, Yer. Ma'as. Sh. 1:52d), and the "udyatha" (the female superintendent of the vapor-baths, Yer. Sheb. 8:38a, "Zosime, the udyatha"); the "sappar" (hair-cutter, ?id. c.), and the "gara'" (barber and blood-letter, ?id. 82a). The women had their "gaddelet," "godelet," or "megaddelet" (hair-dresser, Kelim 15:3; ?id. 2:3).

In the interest of landowners worked the "kayyal" (measurer, Yer. B. M. 9:12a), and the "mashoa?," masho?aah" (surveyor, Kelim 14:3; B. M. 107b). The care of the city required the labor of the "ibbola'ah" (gate-keeper, watchman, Niddah 67b).

Traffic and communication by land gave employment to the "kattaf" or "sabbal" (load-carrier, B. M. 118b; Yer. B. M. 10:12c); to the "is?undara," "baldara," "dawwar," "?ablara" (the courier, ?id. 21b; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah 1:39d; Esther R. 1:8; Shab. 19a; Targ. Proverbs 24:34; Pesi?. R. ), and to the "ba'al aksanya," "ushpizkan," "diyyora," "punda?i" (the innkeeper, Pesi?. R.; Meg. 26a; Ta'an. 21a; Gi?. 8:9). Communication by water was kept up by the "sappan" (seaman, Sheb. 8:5), the "malla?" (sailor, Eccl. R. 9:8), the "mabbora" (ferryman, ?ul. 94a), and the "naggada" (tracker of vessels, B. M. 107b). The ship had also an "amodaah" (diver, R. H. 23a).

Finally, mention must be made of the "zappat" (pitch-burner, Mi?. 9:7); the "di?ulaah" (basketmaker, B. B. 22a); the "liblar," "libellarius," "sofer," "safra" (writer), who wrote documents as well as books (Shab. 1:3; Gi?. 8:8; 'Ab. Zarah 9b); and the "?abbora'ah" (grave-digger, Sanh. 26b).

Handicrafts and Women.

In primitive society most of the handicrafts are carried on by members of the family as occasion demands. It is only with the advance of civilization that work becomes specialized and a class of Artisans develops. Thus even in Talmudic times, side by side with specialized craftsmen, a great deal of work was done by the women of the family. The Mishnah Ketubot (5:5) sheds light on this subject:

Something similar is found a hundred years later (Yeb. 63a).

A trade which would necessitate business intercourse with women is looked upon as improper (?id. 4:14); for every one who deals with women has bad leaven in him, otherwise he would not have chosen such a trade (?id. 82a; compare Jastrow, "Dictionary," s. ). But, like all theories, this rule was not always carried out in practise; even scholars disregarded it (compare Pes. 113b). also Labor.

Nevertheless there were several trades regarded unfavorably by popular opinion. This is well expressed by R. Me�r (about the year 140):

And R. Judah ha-Nasi (about the year 200):

Estimation of Certain Trades.

Drivers of asses and camels, shepherds, sailors, wagon-drivers, storekeepers, and crockery-dealers are looked down upon, "for their trades are robbers' trades" (?id. 4:14; Yer. ?id. 4:66c et seq.). The following occupations are also looked upon with disfavor because they bring one into contact with women, and neither king nor high priest should be chosen from among those who follow them�namely, the trades of goldsmith, carder, millstone-chiseler, pedler, weaver, barber, fuller, leech, bath-man, and tanner (?id. c.).

Gilds.

Classification by trade and the formation of gilds are mentioned in the Bible. Thus, gilds of gold-smiths and perfumers are referred to in Nehemiah 3:8. Gilds of potters and weavers seem to be indicated in 1 Chronicles 4:23. These gilds seem to have been hereditary, similar to the later families of Garmu and Abtinas, who tenaciously retained in their respective families the special knowledge of baking the showbread and preparing the holy incense (Yoma 3:11). The coppersmiths or embossers had a separate synagogue (Meg. 26a; Naz. 52a). In Alexandria there was a perfect organization of the various trades. In the synagogue the goldsmiths, silversmiths, smiths, embossers, weavers, etc., sat each in a separate group (Suk. 51b). Among some trades there existed also mutual insurance (B. ?. 116b). also Agriculture, BAKING, Baths, BOTTLE, COOKERY, COPPER, COTTON, Dyeing, EMBROIDERY, Engraving, FLAX, FULLER, GLASS, IRON, LABOR, LEATHER, METALS, NAVIGATION, POTTERY, Spinning, WEAVING.